p-Ring innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. p-Yoruboid 1 Afro-Asiatic Language Family. Berta suff. WCh WOT in East Africa. [121] Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber,[154] where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic. [8][9] Other proposed names which have not found widespread acceptance among the linguistic community include Erythraic, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite. p-Central Chadic [134] A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. In Afro-Asiatic, there are five main families. as EL). Among the countries included in this language family are: Chad, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan, Egypt, Algeria, and Ethiopia. * "The Origins of Third Consonants in Semitic Roots: An Internal Reconstruction (Applied to Arabic)," Journal of Afroasiatic Languages 3, 2 (1989): 109-202. The Afroasiatic language family is thought to have originated in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula around 15,000 years ago. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. Benfys title was later inverted to make Hamito-Semitic but over time racial connotations were applied to this name (Voegelin, p.13). In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. [176], Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a "quintessentially Afroasiatic feature". To the south lay the other language families of Africa: Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan (Atlas,p74). [121] This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,[153] and is particularly noticeable in the triliteral Semitic verb. reflex), (root #723 + *x extend. tr. See . Nara [140] A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a. Tivoid [18][11], The alternative name "Lisramic" is based on the AA root *lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rm ("person"). Author: Martin Bernal Language: EnglishEdition: 1stBinding: HardcoverPages: 575Publisher: Rutgers Univ PressPublication Date: 304805601149 [15] The association between Africans and the Biblical Ham dates back to at least Isidore of Seville (6th century CE), and earlier 19th-century scholars had vaguely spoken of "Hamian" or "Hamitish" languages. [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. [149], A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns. It is traditionally understood to be an adjective based on the name of Abraham's ancestor, Eber ("Ever" in Hebrew), mentioned in Genesis 10:21. . While there is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family or the period when the parent language (i.e. I.2.1. [40] Tom Gldemann, however, argues that less time may have been required than is commonly assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to language contact, as happened in the Chadic branch and probably also in Omotic. [127], Afroasiatic Languages use the processes of reduplication and gemination (which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed, Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . innovation: narrowing of meaning to tr. ), to fit on top of, go above or in front of, (Eg., Sem. Report Save. V. V. ven. [13] Each of Noah's sons was traditionally presented as being the common ancestor of several apparently-related people groups, with Shem understood by the original audience as being the common ancestor of the Jews, Assyrians, and Arameans, among others, and Ham seen as the ancestor of the Egyptians and Cushites. However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is incidental. The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. In this interpretation, a contrast existed between. Dalby, Andrew. p-Fula-Sereer There are approximately 400 Afroasiatic languages, either living or recorded but extinct. Defaka [131], Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),[133] while in others, plural forms are ungendered. ), (root #695 + *f iter.? p-Gbaya [129] Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed. [80] Most scholars place the homeland of Afroasiatic near the center of its current distribution,[8] "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa. The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. innovation: 'send' > 'direct,' hence 'command, rule'), (Agaw *a allows PAA vowel reconstructions *a, *aa, *o, or *e), (Sem., Eg. p-Talodi Anaang There is an obvious trend (probably driven by Semitic and Egyptian researchers) to place the Afroasiatic Homeland near one of the many proposed Semitic homelands, i.e. [123], Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic was a tonal language, with tonality subsequently lost in some branches: Christopher Ehret has postulated a tonal system of at least two tonal phonemes, falling tone, rising tone, and possibly a third tone, level tone. There is no general consensus over the location of the Urheimat, the original homeland from which began the migrations into the present locations of the speakers. except for Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and Malta, all branches of the London: Routledge, 1990. velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals; This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 01:29. [164] Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. North of the Sahara and the Ethiopian mountains are the Afro-Asiatic languages. [20] Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch;[46] some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic. [50], Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages, including Hebrew, as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic. shared innovation: *isin-/*usun- 'they' (originally fem./masc. In Afro-Asiatic languages: Origins originated is referred to as Proto-Afro-Asiatic. It typically comprises Kartvelian, Indo-European, and Uralic languages; some languages from the disputed Altaic family; the Afroasiatic languages spoken in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East; and the Dravidian languages of the Indian Subcontinent (sometimes also Elamo-Dravidian, which connects India and the innovation: 'increase' > 'grow in size'), (root #838 + * part. "[81] The African languages of Afroasiatic are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in an Asian AA homeland while all other branches had spread from there. suff. [154] In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, and some Chadic languages, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given verb are dependent on the vocalic template. This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). [20], The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. suff. [7] Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial. [128] In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns. The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. [72] Earlier, the first scholar to question to existence of "Hamitic languages" was Marcel Cohen (1924),[9] while skepticism was also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann (1920s and '30s). [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. Olukumi [141] However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. [75] Consequently, scholars have offered estimates for when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken that range between 18,000 and 8,000 BCE. [163] Three derivational prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive'. NE Sudanic The Semitic line of Afro-Asiatic has the most language sub-sets. [9] ( suff. for expected *ii probably reflects phonetic influence of PC root in #254), (Sem., Eg. infix [also tonal shift as found in Chadic cases]), (this root is included because #871 following derives from it), (sing. Additional Proposed PAA Roots; Appendix 4. This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic. p-Grassfields innovation: 'lift' > 'carry', (Eg., Sem., Cush, shared innovations: *su, *usu 'he'; *si, *isi 'she': see Chap. [34] The Cushitic family is traditionally spit into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic.
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